Annotated Bibliography Paper On Domestication Of Animals

Introduction				was distinctive to certain regions in the world and it
Domestication of Animals is a particularly interesting				also formed an important part of these cultures.
topic to me because these animals are some of the				All in all, the latter book was important in placing
most important companions to man. Besides that, they				domestication of man in a historical context. Through
have also the crucial sources of food in man's diet i.e.				the book, one can understand some of the factors
they provide man with sources of protein. It would				that pushed man towards domesticating animals and
therefore be important to understand how man				living a sedentary lifestyle altogether.
managed to forge such a relationship with these				Bellwood, P. (2004): First Farmers – the origins of
creatures. It is also particularly interesting to see that				agricultural societies; Blackwell Publishers
some domestic animals have their close companions in				In the latter book, the author discusses some of the
the wild life category. For instance, cats and panthers				reasons behind domestication of animals and the
belong to the same family and so do dogs and				process itself. One such reason was the fading away
wolves.				of the hunting and gathering lifestyle and the adoption
These similarities create a lot of interest in the history				of a sedentary way of life. In the process of carrying
of these animals owing to the fact that one would				this out, man felt that it was important to bring those
wonder why certain closely associated animals were				animals that he used to hunt closer to him. Some of
domesticated while others were not. Also, it would be				the factors that determined these choices included
interesting to find out how the knowledge of				lifespan, mating patterns, diet, temperament and the
domestication spread to other parts of the world or				animal's size.
whether it was a journey of discovery for every				Man was prompted to choose certain animals over
ancient community. Consequently, the latter paper will				others owing to the fact that some offered him more
shed some light into these puzzles by giving detailed				advantages. For instance, cattle and goats offered
accounts of the who, when, how and where of animal				human beings milk and this would therefore serve as a
domestication.				renewable source of protein. Besides this, some
With regard to the topic, I would expect to find that				animals were chosen because of their ability to carry
domestication of animals was done in different				out both manual labor and still be a source of food.
geographical regions and at different times. Additionally,				Other animals could offer man wool, hides and even
I would also expect to find that this process was				fertilizer. There are millions of animals that man had the
something unique to man in that different societies had				option of domesticating, but he opted to settle on
to do it in their own way. I also expect to find that the				fourteen because these proved to be the most
domestication of animals was a process synonymous				beneficial to him.
to the Neolithic era. Consequently, the focus of the				Through the latter book, one can understand some of
paper will be on this period in history.				the propellants of early domestication. Additionally, it is
After the research, it was found that domestication did				possible to understand why man chose to
in fact occur at different times for different animals				domesticate certain animals while at the same time
and in different geographical areas. Consequently, in				ignoring others. This book is important in placing the
order to understand the domestication process, one				topic in context.
ought to place the study in geographical and historical				Hayden, B. (1992): Models of Domestication, Madison,
contexts.				Prehistory Press
Research findings				In the latter book, the author explains how man chose
Encyclopedia Britannica (1990): Domestication, 19th				to move from a hunter gatherer lifestyle to a more
Edition, London, McMillan				sedentary on. Additionally, geographical explanations of
The Encyclopedia Britannica (1990) describes				where animal domestication occurred are also
domestication as the process of reorganizing wild				highlighted in the text.
animals and plants into cultivated and domestic forms				The Middle Eastern region was one of the areas that
in alignment with human being's interests. Strictly				started this phenomenon. The latter region began with
speaking, domestication refers to some of the earliest				the domestication of the camel. Climatic conditions
stages of mastering wild animals and plants. The major				began getting harsher in this region; consequently, there
difference between wild animals and domestic ones is				was a need to look for favorable areas to settle. The
that the latter were created so as to meet man's				people of the Middle Eastern region then decided to
peculiar needs. Furthermore, domestic animals are				move with their domesticated animals into different
dependent on the continuous care that man created				parts of Afro Eurasia. Consequently, the phenomenon
for them by adapting to this process. Domestication of				of domestication of animals spread very fast into the
animals is definitely one of the highlights of man's				rest of the world. Climatic conditions also had an
development especially in relation to the issue of				important role to play in determining the distribution of
material culture. Agriculture was also redefined after				these animals. This was because the crops and plants
animals' domestication because it is now seen as a				that man domesticated were better suited to certain
combination of the combination of both plant and				environmental conditions.
animal production.				In the book, it is asserted that animal domestication
In the latter book, it is asserted that the first attempt at				spread quickly to North Africa and Eurasia because
animal domestication occurred during the Mesolithic era.				there were similarities in climatic conditions. However,
As early as 9000 BC, some hunters and gatherers				the same cannot be said of some parts of the world
had attempted to domesticate sheep, goats, dogs and				such as Southern Africa that would not have
possibly some pigs. However, it was only until the				supported these animals or plants. Taking the example
Neolithic era in which these animals were				of the African Zebu – the latter animal falls in the
domesticated. At that time, agriculture was treated as				category of cattle but it is unique from all other breeds
form of social activity and domestication of animals				since it is better suited to the relatively hot areas of
became part of that process. The animals that were				Central Africa. Additionally, the Bovines are also
domesticated during this year included pigs, dogs,				separate breeds that are more suited to the Fertile
sheep, cattle and cats. Other domestic animals such				Crescent. Other animals such as the Ilama could not
as rabbits appeared in subsequent periods of history				be exported to other sections of the world because
i.e. during the Middle Ages. Some animals such as bees				the Isthmus of Panama prevented their movement.
were domesticated at the end of the Neolithic era. The				Therefore, besides climatic conditions, the spread of
latter animal was domesticated for the purpose of				domestication of certain animals was also hampered
providing honey. Honey became an instrumental part				by geographical factors.
of man's nutrition for years to come. In fact, it was only				Rindos, D. (2003): The Origins of Agriculture – A
two hundred years ago when this commodity ceased				revolutionary perspective; Academic Press
being the only sweetener.				The latter book addresses some of the causes and
Fuller, D. (2006): Agricultural Origins in South Asia; World				effects of early agricultural forms during the Neolithic
Prehistory Journal, 20, 42				era. According to explanations made by this author,
The latter book brings in some insights about the				domestication of animals and plants was necessitated
relationship between domestic animals and their wild				by religious purposes, crowding, stress and discovery.
ancestors. According to the author, the similarities				With regard to the first reason, the latter author
between the latter categories of animals are usually				explains that some excavations done at Catalhoyuk
done through comparisons of function and structure.				depict the fact that the Neolithic revolution by some of
Additionally, knowledge borrowed from cyto-genetical				these early settlers preceded the process of
realms that compare genes and gene sets are also				agriculture development. In these explanations, it is
particularly insightful in understanding the process of				asserted that there was revolutionary transition within
domestication . Usually, the biochemical and				man's psychology. In other words, man's beliefs about
morphological studies done are the most important in				his world were changing and the symbols that were to
understanding these relationships.				be utilized to carry out these perceptions were seen in
The latter book is insightful in understanding the				his community rituals. Examples of the symbols
changes animals have undergone since the first				included
attempt at domestication is so profound that it is often				- Aurohcs horns
depicted through the differences between various				- Corpulent figurines
breeds of animals. It is also imperative to note that the				Consequently, this anthropologist believes that man
most fundamental change associated with				opted to domesticate animals so as to fulfill this
domestication of animals is with regard to their				revolutionary period.
reproduction. Wild animals tend to reproduce through				The latter author also attempts to create a scenario in
strict seasonal means or molting rhythms. On the other				which one can understand this domestication process
hand, domestic animals tend to produce at almost any				through other explanations such as discovery and
time of the year and there is very little molting that				stress. He explains that domestication was brought on
occurs amongst them. The general appearance and				by a discovery which had been carried out by food
structure of domestic animals is fundamentally different				gatherers. The latter groups needed to move from
from that of its wild ancestors.				camp to camp and they realized that they needed
During the commencement of domestication,				support through their animals. Also, the latter category
elementary recessive genes are normally drawn out				of individuals was highly responsible for the language
from the animal under consideration and these genes				and culture existent in the world as it is known today.
usually form the necessary framework for creating				Consequently, it can be said that they were the ones
changes that serve breeding functions in domestic				that spearheaded these changes.
animals. Nature has a way of storing some of these				Bahn, P (2004): The atlas of world archeology: Brown
recessive genes in wild animals; the genes are				Reference Group Publishers
normally made active through the process of mutation				The latter book is particularly important in understanding
among the groups under consideration. The latter is				some of the consequences of the domestication of
usually utilized by the efforts of man who exploits				animals. First of all, it should be noted that the
breeding patterns in such a manner that the				domestication of animals reduced the need for living a
characteristics being emphasized will be able to cater				hunting and gathering lifestyle. Consequently, a
for man's needs.				sedentary lifestyle led to greater increases in the
In other words, this is what is known as artificial				population. When man was still a hunter or a gatherer,
selection. Artificial selection is fundamentally different				such a lifestyle influenced the number of children that
from natural selection owing to the fact that in natural				one could have because the constant movement
selection, a stabilized biological system is created in				inhibited carrying more than one child. After the
which a certain species can survive in the wild. On the				domestication of animals, man had a steady source of
other hand, artificial selection seeks to break down				food and had no need to look for it in the wild. This led
these stable biological systems though creation of a				to greater birth rates and also to greater numbers of
gene combination that will make the animal under				social groups in various communities.
consideration be unable to survive in the wild.				With the birth of more children and the continual
Savona-Ventura, C. & Mifsud, A. (1997): The				increases in populations, populations began expanding
Maltese Neolithic Domesticated mammals, London,				beyond what had been anticipated. This eventually led
Athlone Press				to certain forms of social organization such as
In their book, Savona –Ventura and Mifsud (1997)				governments. There were greater food surpluses,
dwell on the process of domestication from the				therefore society began forming a social elite that was
Maltese perspective. The latter location was chosen				not directly involved in production processes such as
because it is an important archeological site and it is				agriculture that dominated these communities in other
home to one of the richest sources of pre-historic art.				perspectives.
This area was particularly interesting because of the				It should also be noted that through the domestication
fact that these drawings reflected early domestic				of animals, it was now possible for man to carry out a
animals such as pigs, goats, oxen and sheep. There				number of economical and social events. For instance,
were also a number of skeletal remains that justify				through this economic empowerment, people could
these studies and some of the animal uncovered there				have more children and eventually social classes
included the horse, cat and dog. Certain peculiar				began emerging. The Neolithic revolution characterized
animals that have also been domesticated by man				by domestication of animals eventually led to a class
include the rabbit, tortoise and even the hedgehog.				based society. In fact earlier societies had class
A number of depictions found within these Islands				divisions founded on which individual possessed the
indicate that the Neolithic cattle were not brought into				greatest amount of wealth. In those times, wealth was
Maltese Islands. Instead, Neolithic man simply found				judged by the number of animals that one possessed
them there and chose to domesticate them. The latter				or by the amount of land that one owned. On the
assertions can be supported by some ox skeletal				other hand, it can also be said that animal
remains that were found within pliocestocene deposits				domestication created most of the foundations of
in specific sites. Pre-historic cave art also indicates that				society as we know them today. For instance, since
the Neolithic society at that time was a hunter –				man now had food security in that he knew where it
gatherer society.				was and when he could eat it, then more settlement
The latter studies were also instrumental in highlighting				began developing and villages began replacing the
the history domestication of sheep within these Islands.				lifestyles that had been synonymous with pre-Neolithic
An art relief on one of the slabs within these sites				lifestyles. In fact the following diagram illustrates how
indicates images of rams that have curved and spiral				these changes occurred
horns. This also implies the latter drawings could have				Bands
been ancestors of the modern sheep. This is because				↓
the average measurement of a ram's or ewe's horns				Tribes
approximate the skeletal remains within those locations.				↓chiefdoms
When it comes to the goat, it has been found that the				↓states
Maltese goat has striking resemblance to the Egyptian				↓empires
one and this is why the latter authors asserted that				When human beings were still hunters and gatherers,
Egypt may have been the major origin. According to				they had no other time but to hunt or gather. However,
them, its bulky horns and lappets on its throat validate				when there was a steady source of food and people
their claims. In other words, domestication of this animal				had settled down, then it was possible to specialize in
occurred through introduction from another				labor. This was the reason why Neolithic settlements
geographical location i.e. Egypt.				possessed pots, baskets, leather etc. Domestication of
In certain Neolithic temples within the Borg In Nadur and				animals caused greater settlement that led to an
Mnajdra regions of Malta, one can see that there is in				egalitarian society.
fact a striking resemblance between the present day				McNamara, J. (2005): Cats, Dogs, Climate and the
pig and the pig reliefs from the latter temples. This				Neolithic Period; Oxford Publishers
resemblance is more closely associated with the				According to the latter author, Dogs were some of the
former category than the wild boar. On the other hand,				earliest animals to be domesticated; about one hundred
the Maltese hog is probably a descendent of the wild				thousand years ago. This notion is consistent with the
boar as depicted by some skeletal remains. Lastly, the				fact that Native Americans had dogs but did not
skeletal remains of dogs have been found in number				posses any other domestic animals that they may
of caves such as Xemxihja. It was asserted that				have brought with them from the Asian continent. This
these remains indicated a lean beast with a prominent				matter can be further understood by making a
vertebral column. This indicates that there maybe a				comparison with other kinds of Neolithic settlements in
similarity between the dog and the terrier. Cat skeletal				that same location. Within the Americas, other
remains have also been found in the latter mentioned				communities were agriculturally based. However,
cave. The specimens found are generally much				Native Americans in pre Columbian times were hunter
smaller than those of modern cats but this indicates				gatherers but they only possessed dogs. Historical
that they may have been domesticated by Neolithic				facts indicate that dogs may have originated from
man at that time.				China. Dogs were instrumental to Neolithic man
Hber, A. & Dayan, T. (2004): Analyzing the				because they protected his crops and man from
process of domestication – Hagoshrim as a case				invaders.
study, Journal of Archeological science, 31, 1600				Cats on the other hand were domesticated after
The latter journal largely focuses on the process of				several years. This could have been as a result of the
domestication through the use of an Israel based				vermin (rats, etc) that arose out of surpluses in food
Neolithic site known as Hagoshrim. In this study, greater				production. Cats therefore feared man the opportunity
emphasis is given to cattle, pigs and caprines since the				to get rid of these vermin. Archeological evidence
skeletal fragments in that area mostly represent these				points to Egypt as the source of these cats. The latter
mammals. Through the utilization of the latter site, it is				organisms came so much later than other domestic
possible to understand the process of domestication				animals to influence the course of the Neolithic
across time and space. This is because there were				revolution.
three layers of skeletal remains that were found in the				Conclusion
latter area.				Domestication of animals is a complex process that
Three parameters were used to study this process				has been the subject of various studies. In certain
and they included;				scenarios, some authors have treated it a
- Changes in body proportions				dichotomous process while in other texts, it has been
- Size reductions				referred to as a continuous one. Irrespective of the
- Kill off patterns				stance that an author chooses to take, the
The latter authors found that the pig remains found				domestication of animals was not a one step
were reflective of the changes that had occurred				procedure and in fact took place through certain
during the seventh millennium. In other words, the				stages. However, there are still a number of
skeletal pieces from the first layer were fundamentally				generalizations that can be made about domestication.
different from remains in the second and third layer.				For instance, domestication of almost all animals first
This indicates that the process of domestication of				began with loose ties between man and beast. This
pigs was associated with this time in history (7th				meant that the animals under consideration began
millennium).				breaking off from associations with wild ancestors.
On the other hand, cattle remains indicated a totally				With time, these man-to-beast connections became so
different domestication process. In this regard, the post				tight that they led to heightened levels of
cranial sizes and proportions were found to be gradual				interdependence and eventually total dependence of
between the three layers of skeletal remains.				the domestic animal on man.
Consequently, it can be said that domestication of				Through the literature review, it has also been shown
cattle took place between a series of times and the				that in order for domestication to occur, then it must be
latter mammal was one of the latest events that				accompanied by structural adaptations required to
occurred during that time. Lastly, the caprines indicated				exist within the domestic environment. In other words,
no significant skeletal changes across these three				wild animals remained as they were because they did
layers of historical sites thus showing that it might have				not undergo any form of interference from man; this
been the earliest mammal to have been domesticated				can either be direct or indirect. On the other hand,
among all the other mammals.				domestic animals depend entirely on man for their
All, in all, it can be said that through the latter book, one				nutrition, survival and reproduction. Without isolating an
can be able to understand the life history of some of				animal from the rest of its population, then en may not
the most common domestic animals through the				be able to fully domesticate it.
process of domestication. In the latter description, it can				It is also essential to understand that the current
be said that certain mammals adapted to their				domestic animals seen today are the end result of a
respective environments relatively earlier than others. In				series of domestication changes that have been
others words this was the order which these				happening across time. This is seen by the transitional
mammals followed; first it was the caprine, then the pig				skeletal remains found by a number of archeologists
and lastly the cow.				or anthropologists. Also, some of these transitional
Kuijt, I. (2000): Life in Neolithic farming communities –				cases may not necessarily become fully domesticated
identity, social organization and differentiation; Springer				as some of them may still be able to live in the wild.
Publishers				Examples here include reindeer, camels or elephants.
The latter book is particularly important in providing a				This brings in a very important fact; that domestication
context to the domestication of animals. While this				should not just be treated as a reproductive phase in
book may handle the topic of domestication only as a				which animal are completely isolated from their wild
subtopic or a chapter, its overall theme of Neolithic				ancestors; instead some flexibility should be maintained
man was important in placing domestication in context.				with regard to the possibility of semi-domestication.
The author starts by defining the actual time frame for				Most of the work conducted on domestication of
the Neolithic era which in this case began as far back				animals also shows that the major differences
as 9500 BC within the Middle East. The latter period				between types or stages of domestication have been
was also highly associated with human technology				brought on by the different degrees of control that
development.				man may have placed on the reproduction, survival
At the beginning of this period, greater emphasis was				and nutrition of these animals. In order to breed while in
given to farming and at the end of it, man began				captivity, an animal must have pre-adapted to that
utilizing metal tools that were crucial in the copper or				environment. The mode of change or the rate upon
bronze ages. Through this book, one can be able to				which an animal can be domesticated will depend on
understand that the Neolithic period was not a pre-set				these factors. Consequently, the different stages of
chronological period; instead, one should treat it as a				domestication for different animal were brought on by
collection of cultural and behavioral traits in which				varying physiological, behavioral, ecological
domestication of both animals and crops was an				characteristics and most importantly, that animal's
important aspect. Climatic conditions forced man to				usefulness to man.
look for other ways of surviving hence the need to				Domestication is therefore a process that can best be
plant crops and thus develop agriculture. Domestication				identified through a combination of factors that include
of animals was a natural part of this process.				the relative scarcity or availability of a certain species,
However, most of the changes within the Neolithic era				the changes associated with demographic parameters
did not occur simultaneously. Instead, different cultural				such as age distribution, shape, body size and
elements were adopted by different categories of				appearance of different pathologies. All these criteria
people.				are instrumental in showing exactly what stage of
When one analyzes Neolithic occurrences in various				domestication one is considering and the relative timing
parts of the world, it can be found that domestication				that was required to reach that process. Also, the
of animals in certain parts of the world took place				literature has shown that certain animals were
much earlier then it did in others. For instance, the				domesticated first hand while others were dispersed
earliest attempts at farming and hence domestication				or introduced into a certain geographical location.
of animals occurred in the Near East. It is also				Given all the latter studies about domestication of
questionable whether settled communities existed in				domestic animal by Neolithic man, a series of questions
other areas such as Britain. By 9000 BC other				still remain unanswered and these could provide
communities began adopting sedentary lifestyles such				possible sources of future research. For instance,
as the Asian Minor and eventually North Africa and				there is very little information that shows how different
Mesopotamia. However, it is particularly interesting to				domestic animals were related to one another in
note that domestication attempts were done				different regions. Most research usually focuses on the
independently in certain regions of the world such as				timings or stages but not on the differences in
South Asia, South East Asia and Africa. Consequently,				geographies. Besides this, there is a need for a
the use of the domesticated animals was a trait that				comprehensive analysis of some of these differences.

Flash It

Annotated Bibliography Paper On Domestication Of Animals

Articles