| An introductory study of Christian apologetics reveals | | | | from the family of David (Rom. 1:3) and lived under |
| that the claims of Christianity were presented by the | | | | Jewish law (Gal. 4:4). Jesus had brothers (I Cor. 9:5), |
| early apostles/messengers as verifiable, objective | | | | one of whom was James (I Cor. 15:7), as well as |
| truth. Whereas most other world religions/cults avoid | | | | twelve disciples (I Cor. 15:7). Paul knew that at least |
| empirical and historical investigations, Christianity is | | | | some of Jesus' brothers and apostles had wives (I |
| grounded on real events having taken place (I Cor. | | | | Cor. 9:5). In fact, Paul knew personally James, as well |
| 15:17). In fact, Dr. Steven Collins goes so far as to point | | | | as apostles Peter and John (Gal. 1:18-2:16). Paul also |
| out "Christianity might be the only belief system in the | | | | presents many of the details concerning the last week |
| world that rests its validity on the reality of certain | | | | of Jesus' life (I Cor. 11:23-25; Rom. 4:25; 5:8; 6:6; Gal. |
| events." This is one of the primary reasons (along with | | | | 2:20; I Thess. 2:14-15; I Cor. 15:3-8). Creeds and Hymns |
| the claim of the exclusivity of Christian truth - or even | | | | in Paul's epistles, as well as some others, present |
| truth in general), that Christianity is such a regular target | | | | some of the earliest documentary evidences of what |
| of derision. The premise that Christianity is "true" is | | | | true Christianity entailed (examples: Rom. 1:3-4; I Cor. |
| based on the acceptance of "truth" according to the | | | | 11:23ff.; 15:3-8; Phil. 2:6-11; Col 1:15-18; I Tim. 3:16; 2 Tim. 2:8; |
| "correspondence" view - meaning that truth is that | | | | also John 1:1-18; I Peter 2:18-22; I John 4:2). Dr. J.P. |
| which corresponds to reality. This stands in opposition | | | | Moreland writes of three characteristic traits regarding |
| to concepts of truth being determined according to | | | | these hymns: "First, they are pre-Pauline and very |
| "that which is existentially relevant," or "that which | | | | early. They use language which is not characteristically |
| works" (pragmatic view), or truth as that which "feels | | | | Pauline, they often easily translate back into Aramaic, |
| good." These latter views of truth can be shown to be | | | | and they show features of Hebrew poetry and |
| not only self-defeating, but also virtually absent in our | | | | thought-forms. This means that they came into |
| everyday lives, activities, and systems. Hence, | | | | existence while the church was heavily Jewish and |
| individuals are often torn between their own professed | | | | that they became standard, recognized creeds and |
| worldviews and the everyday lives they live. Norman | | | | hymns well before their incorporation into Paul's letters. |
| Geisler points out that if the pragmatic ("what works") | | | | Most scholars date them from 33 to 48. Some, like |
| view of truth were applied to our everyday culture, our | | | | Hengel, date many of them in the first decade after |
| whole judicial system would be thrown into disarray, | | | | Jesus' death. Second, the content of these creeds and |
| since witnesses in court are not asked to "swear to | | | | hymns centers on the death, resurrection, and deity of |
| tell ‘what works for you,' ‘the whole of what | | | | Christ. They consistently present a portrait of a |
| works for you,' and ‘nothing but what works for | | | | miraculous and divine Jesus who rose from the dead. |
| you'" (for a detailed discussion on this and a refutation | | | | Third, they served as hymns of worship in the liturgy |
| of Immanuel Kant's agnosticism, see Norman Geisler's | | | | of the early assemblies and as didactic expressions |
| chapter in Why I Am a Christian entitled "Why I Believe | | | | for teaching the Christology of the church" (Moreland: |
| Truth is Real and Knowable" pp. 30 – 45)     | | | | Scaling the Secular City c.1987 pp. 148-149) |
| We saw in the previous article how there is actual | | | | (*Note, I personally had the privilege of  viewing a |
| empirical evidence (through what is called general | | | | page of Papyrus 46 – one of the oldest known |
| revelation Romans 1:20, 2:14-15) which reveals there is | | | | Greek manuscript copies of the letters of Paul – |
| some kind of "god" who "creates" (cosmological | | | | containing a section of the book of Romans. This was |
| argument), "designs" (teleological argument), and who | | | | made available for viewing at the The Dea Sea Scrolls |
| through this creation bears evidence of the existence | | | | and the Bible exhibit at the Milwaukee Public Museum, |
| of at least a general "morality" (moral argument) and | | | | Jan. 22, 2010 – June 6, 2010) |
| meaning (religious need / joy). Though some people to | | | | The church "fathers:" Concerning only the four |
| whom we witness and inquire about evidences for the | | | | Gospels, there are 19,368 citations from the church |
| Christian faith will not require this sort of "systematic" | | | | "fathers" dating from the late 1st century onward. |
| approach, the "classical apologist" affirms the above | | | | Papias (as a companion of Polycarp, who was a |
| premises and ideas in order to have a certain | | | | disciple of the Apostle John) quoted John. From this |
| grounding for presenting evidences pertaining more | | | | fact the argument is made that the Gospels were in |
| specifically to Christianity. Geisler expresses the | | | | existence before the end of the first century. It's |
| classical approach this way: | | | | even been noted that there are enough quotations |
| "The basic argument of the classical apologists is that | | | | from the early church fathers that "even if we did not |
| it makes no sense to speak about the resurrection as | | | | have a single copy of the Bible, scholars could still |
| an act of God unless, as a logical prerequisite, it is first | | | | reconstruct all but 11 verses of the entire New |
| established that there is a God who can act. Likewise, | | | | Testament from material written within 150 to 200 |
| the Bible cannot be the Word of God unless there is a | | | | years from the time of Christ" (Mc Dowell, "Evidence |
| God who can speak. And Christ cannot be shown to | | | | for the Historical accuracy of the New Testament," in |
| be the Son of God except on the logically prior | | | | The Intellectuals speak Out About God, 273-274, as |
| premise there is a God who can have a Son" (Geisler, | | | | reference by Dan Story, Defending Your Faith, 38) |
| ECA)Â | | | | Determination about the time for the development of |
| Thus, in the progression of "classical" Christian | | | | myth: |
| apologetics, we now move on sequentially to issues | | | | Roman historian A.N. Sherwin-White, having done |
| pertaining more particularly to Christianity. The question | | | | extensive studies on the amount of time required for |
| arises: Has this "god" who is evidenced by means of | | | | "myth development" to take place defiantly rejects the |
| general revelation ever, in time-space history, been | | | | mythological view of the New Testament (Geisler |
| revealed to us inany kind of objective, verifiable | | | | ECA) |
| manner?(not pertaining to merely "feelings" – or | | | | C.S. Lewis (Oxford / Cambridge scholar of mythology) |
| even mere personal, "mystical experiences" although | | | | addressed the subject of "myth" and the Bible by |
| these can be considered "some" evidence for a | | | | saying: "Those who equate the New Testament with |
| Christian view of God). The Christian answers "yes," | | | | mythology have not studied enough myth" |
| meaning that this true God revealed himself through an | | | | Determination about time and the influence of myth: |
| actual, historically verifiable person known as"Jesus," | | | | Dr. Edwin Yamauchi (Professor of History and |
| who is "the Christ." "Testing" whether or not the | | | | Archaeology at Miami University Oxford, Ohio) |
| Christian's answer is true can be done using the same | | | | presents extensive research on the subject of |
| accepted ways we test all historical truths. Along with | | | | similarities from "stories of Greek gods" and concludes |
| considering extra-biblical evidences for the Jesus of | | | | the stories were not prior to but after the time of |
| history, what is often termed as "normal historical | | | | Christ. Hence, if there is any influence of one on the |
| procedures" can be applied to the New Testament | | | | other, it is the influence of the historical event of the |
| itself in order to present "evidence" that it is a valid | | | | New Testament on the mythology, not the reverse" |
| source of historical information. This practice is known | | | | (ECA, 518) (For an excellent, comprehensive |
| as historiography, or the "science of historical | | | | breakdown and responses to the "Christianity copying |
| investigation." The reason for starting with the NT as a | | | | mythology" arguments, consider visiting the J.P Holding |
| valid source of history is broken down by Dr. Winfried | | | | multi-essay examination available at the following site |
| Corduan as follows: | | | | Â The General Historical Reliability of the New |
| 1) The New Testament as history shows that… | | | | Testament: |
| 2) it is reasonable to believe in the deity of Christ, | | | | The NT "Gospel" of Luke** (read chapter 1 verses 1-4, |
| who… | | | | along with noting that Luke was aphysician by |
| 3) taught us to accept the Bible as the Word of Go | | | | profession); F.F. Bruce writes: "He (Luke) relates his |
| Consequently, based on what evidence do we | | | | story…to the wider context of history …courting |
| consider the NT to be historically reliable? | | | | trouble if not careful…he affords his readers so many |
| Evidence and Other Ancient Writings | | | | opportunities for testing his accuracy." Sir William |
| The N.T. time period is known as "ancient" history. Our | | | | Ramsey (considered one of the greatest |
| common knowledge of ancient history is based on | | | | archaeologists of all time) stated "Luke is an historian |
| what is known as documentary or "written" evidence. | | | | of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact |
| Keep in mind that the secular world relies upon ancient | | | | trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic |
| writers for its knowledge of the past. Examples | | | | sense…he seizes the important and critical events |
| include: Herodotus, Suetonius, Tacitus, Julius Caesar, | | | | and shows their true nature at greater length…in short, |
| and Josephus. Many of these who recorded history | | | | this author should be placed along with the very |
| were let alone not eyewitnesses, they were not even | | | | greatest of historians" (** Note: I personally had the |
| contemporaries of the people and events concerning | | | | opportunity to view a page of Papyrus 4, a very old |
| which they reported. For example, Herodotus (480 | | | | Greek manuscript copy of the Gospel of Luke, which |
| – 425 BC) wrote about events that preceded him | | | | was made available for viewing at the Dead Sea |
| by hundreds of years – yet his version of events in | | | | Scrolls and the Bible Exhibit at the Milwaukee Public |
| history are generally accepted (or "believed") to be | | | | Museum from Jan. 22, 2010 – June 6, 2010) |
| accurate. They're generally accepted because there | | | | Extra-biblical and archeological evidence: For many |
| isn't any good reason to doubt the basic integrity of | | | | years (based on silence about events/people etc) |
| the documents. One important question which should | | | | extra-biblical and archeological evidence prompted |
| be applied is: Are the surviving manuscript copies that | | | | many to question the truth of the Bible. Yet, the more |
| we have "original in force?" "Documentary" evidence | | | | people have critiqued, compared, etc. the more the |
| helps draw conclusions for the answer to this question. | | | | scriptures come out shining (Examples: Gospel of John |
| This evidence involves, in the very least, the following | | | | mentions the pool/pools of Bethesda concerning which |
| subjects: | | | | there was no evidence until this last century; Details of |
| A. Primitive Manuscripts (Do early manuscripts of the | | | | governing and Roman judicial procedure – have |
| documents exist?) | | | | been shown to have been accurate)Â |
| B. Quantity and Quality (Do they exist in sufficient | | | | Sherwin-White (the renowned archeologist) on the |
| quantity and quality so that the | | | | book of Acts: "To reject its basic historicity even in |
| Â Â Â Â readings of the original texts can be accurately | | | | matters of detail must now appear absurd"Â |
| reproduced?) | | | | William L. Craig (philosopher, apologist, and author) on |
| C. Internal Consistency (Does consistency exist within | | | | the Gospels: "The Gospels show an intimate |
| the contents of the text itself) | | | | knowledge of Jerusalem before its destruction, |
| D. Time Proximity (How does the date of writing | | | | indicating that they were written before the terrible |
| compare with the time of the events | | | | event (in AD 70)" "The Gospels are full of references |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | to proper names, dates, cultural details, historical |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â themselves?) | | | | events, and opinions/customs of the time." "The stories |
| Evidence Supporting the New Testament | | | | of Jesus' weaknesses and the faults of the disciples |
| Gary Habermas notes that "if the same criteria that | | | | are earmarks for authenticity" |
| are regularly applied to other ancient writings are also | | | | Julius Africanus (an ancient extrabiblical historian who |
| implemented by New Testament scholars, a solid | | | | wrote in about AD 221) quotes from a work that has |
| historical basis emerges for the life and teachings of | | | | been lost (by an eastern Mediterranean – Thallus). |
| Jesus." Â Thus, let's explore an application of each of | | | | Thallus wrote in AD (CE) 52 about an event in |
| these criteria to the NT. The following is a breakdown | | | | previous years of darkness which he explains away |
| of these historiography subjects and some notable | | | | as probably being an eclipse of the sun. Likewise |
| facts pertaining to each when comparing the NT with | | | | Phlegan – a Greek author from Caria writing a |
| other ancient documents:Â Â Â | | | | chronology soon after AD 137 reported that (in the AD |
| A. Primitive Manuscripts and their (B) Quantity and | | | | 30's) there was the "greatest eclipse of the sun" and |
| Quality. One will notice that applying these rules to the | | | | that it became "night" in the sixth hour of the day (i.e. |
| N.T. lend it overwhelming support, especially in | | | | noon) so that the stars even appeared in the heavens. |
| comparison to other ancient documents. | | | | Will Durant (historian from this century –and not a |
| Other Ancient Works: Aristophanes (playwright – | | | | friend of Christianity) – from "The Story of |
| writing dates 450 – 385 BC) Number of primitive | | | | Civilization" comments on the general reliability of the |
| manuscript copies: 10; Aristotle (philosopher – writing | | | | NT text: "If higher criticism was applied (in the same |
| dates 384 – 322 BC) Number of primitive | | | | severity) to other works of antiquity, a hundred |
| manuscript copies: 5; Plato (philosopher – writing | | | | worthies (Hamurabi, Socrates etc.) would fade into |
| dates 427 – 347 BC) Number of primitive | | | | legend…After two centuries of higher criticism the |
| manuscript copies: 7; Suetonius (historian – writing | | | | outlines of the life, character, and teachings of Christ |
| dates AD 75 – 160) Number of primitive manuscript | | | | remain reasonably clear, and constitute the most |
| copies: 8; Tacitus (historian – writing dates AD | | | | fascinating feature in the history of Western man" |
| 100)Number of primitive manuscript copies: 20; | | | | John Warwick Montgomery (historian / law |
| Sophocles (playwright – writing dates 496 – 406 | | | | professor)"To be skeptical of the resultant text of the |
| BC)Number of primitive manuscript copies: 100; The | | | | New Testament books is to allow all of classical |
| most documented ancient secular work is Homer's Iliad, | | | | antiquity to slip into obscurity, for no documents of the |
| which survives in 643 primitive manuscript copies. | | | | ancient period are as well attested bibliographically as |
| Compare all of the above with the New Testament | | | | the New Testament" |
| (Date of writing AD 45-70) with 5,686 primitive Greek | | | | The NT being "biased" as an obstacle to reliable |
| manuscripts in existence. | | | | history: Since this is a common "obstacle" presented |
| The date of the earliest copy compared to the time of | | | | regarding the historical veracity of the NT, let's take |
| writing: For most –over 900 to 1,000 years or even | | | | into account the following issues and quotes regarding |
| longer. An example is Aristotle – with the date of | | | | whether or not the authors of the New Testament |
| writing being 384-322 BC – and the date of the | | | | had merely a biased agenda when writing: |
| earliest manuscript copy being AD(CE) 1100 | | | | The assumption of agendas producing inaccuracies: |
| Concerning the works of Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates | | | | First, this contradicts the internal consistency test (*see |
| (who lived in the fifth and fourth centuries BC [BCE] | | | | above*). Also, Dr. Ben Witherington III makes a |
| there are no existing manuscript copies which date | | | | convincing case for Gospels being a particular type of |
| prior to AD [CE] 1000). | | | | genre, which includes history (Dr. Ben Witherington III, |
| Compare this to the NT: Date of writing AD 45 – | | | | The Gospel Code) (For an excellent essay refuting the |
| 70; Fragments (AD 125) Many whole books (AD 200) | | | | "biased" argument about the accuracy of the New |
| (* Keep in mind that the comparison which is being | | | | Testament see Glenn Miller's study at |
| made is between what are typically accepted by | | | | Also, this invites the question: What we can know |
| secular scholars as secular documents of the same | | | | about Jesus / Christianity outside of the Biblical |
| variety – meaning a text preserved on perishable | | | | attestation? |
| material that was intended to be distributed on that | | | | Â - Extra-Biblical "friends" of Christianity: Concerning |
| material. Comparing these to the rare case of a | | | | only the four Gospels, there are 19,368 citations from |
| bronze tablet affixed to the sides of a tomb, or | | | | the church "fathers" dating from the late first century |
| inscriptions carved on temples is comparing apples to | | | | onward. |
| oranges *) | | | | Â - Extra-Biblical "enemies" of Christianity: Utilizing only |
| C. Internal Consistency: This is in reference tointernal | | | | extra-biblical authors (mostly antagonists of Christianity) |
| tests dealing mainly with the consistency of the | | | | such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, |
| individual documents and their general harmony with | | | | Josephus (etc), Dr. Edwin Yamauchi (Professor of |
| other documents reporting the same events. | | | | History and Archaeology of Miami University in Oxford, |
| On the subject of Jesus' arrest, trial, death, and | | | | Ohio) constructs the life of the person of Christ in the |
| resurrection in…Matt. 26; Mark 14; Luke 22; John 13 | | | | following manner: |
| -Matt. 28; Mark 16; Luke 24; John 20 concerning | | | | "First, Jesus was a Jewish teacher; second, many |
| variances in details…the case is actually strengthened, | | | | people believed that he performed healings and |
| where minor differences in the retelling of the same | | | | exorcisms; third, some people believed he was the |
| event are actually legal earmarks of authenticity. | | | | Messiah; fourth, he was rejected by the Jewish |
| Â According to Historian Paul Meir; "Many facts from | | | | leaders; fifth, he was crucified under Pontius Pilate in |
| antiquity rest on just one ancient source, while two or | | | | the reign of Tiberius; sixth, despite this shameful death, |
| three sources in agreement generally render the fact | | | | his followers, who believed that he was still alive, |
| unimpeachable" | | | | spread beyond Palestine so that there were multitudes |
| D. Time Proximity | | | | of them in Rome by AD 64; and seventh, all kinds of |
| Meaning an examination of the time-proximity of the | | | | people from the cities and countryside-men and |
| original writing compared to the events they report. In | | | | women, slave and free-worshiped him as God" |
| the midst of skepticism from radical critics about | | | | The Most Formidable Obstacle to Considering the NT |
| supposed late dates for the writing of the New | | | | as Historical: Naturalistic Dogmatism: This leads us to |
| Testament, because of newly-discovered New | | | | what is perhaps the most formidable obstacle for |
| Testament manuscripts (whole and fragmentary – | | | | many in regarding the NT as being historically reliable |
| which are very early in date) it has become | | | | – that being an Anti -supernatural bias (a priori). |
| increasingly difficult for critics to hold to their previous | | | | When the issue of anti-supernatural, a priori bias is |
| assumptions. Take into consideration the following: | | | | raised, one question which must be asked is; whatever |
| The dating of the Gospel of John: The John Rylands | | | | happened to theism? Is Antony Flew's "conversion" to |
| papyri fragment (P52) from Egypt (found in 1920) | | | | deism - and a creator "god" - truly that far removed |
| dated from 117 to 138, and possibly as early as AD 94. | | | | from a belief in a "god" who can act in history? |
| The fact that this writing was composed in either | | | | (Interestingly, world-renowned God belief antagonist |
| Palestine or Asia Minor, and yet the fragment was | | | | Richard Dawkins, author of the best-selling book The |
| found in Egypt, bears evidence that the Gospel of | | | | God Delusion recently conceded during a public debate |
| John had already been copied numerous times and | | | | at Oxford University – October 21st, 2008 - that a |
| circulated. For this to have happened, it had to have | | | | good case could be made for a deistic explanation of |
| been written early enough to allow for this fairly wide | | | | the universe. What many fail to understand, or at least |
| distribution. This at least pushes the date of John's | | | | admit, is that this simple "case could be made" |
| original document back into the middle or latter part of | | | | acknowledgement is a radically abrupt worldview |
| the 1st century – which pushes back the date of | | | | change – from a "closed system naturalism" to an |
| the original documents of the other Gospels even | | | | "open system supernaturalism." If an infinite being |
| earlier. | | | | created, ultimately, something out of nothing – is it so |
| Dating the NT by way of the book of Acts: Numerous | | | | far-fetched to hold that this "being" would/could reveal |
| evidences point out that Acts had to have been | | | | itself by means of the miraculous? If the |
| written at least prior to AD (CE) 70. Roman historian | | | | anti-supernatural bias is stripped away and the same |
| Colin Hemer cites 15 reasonable evidences for Acts | | | | criteria that are regularly applied to other events in |
| being written between AD (CE) 60 and 62, including | | | | ancient history are applied to the New Testament, |
| these four: | | | | historiography bears overwhelming evidence that God |
| 1) There is no mention in Acts of the crucial event of | | | | has revealed Himself through the historical figure |
| the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. | | | | known as Jesus the Christ. Still, Witherington explains |
| 2) There is no hint of the outbreak of the Jewish War | | | | the somewhat moot nature of this argument in light of |
| in AD  66 or of serious deterioration of relations | | | | our current post-modern culture where people "are not |
| between Romans and Jews before that time. | | | | less prone, but in fact are more prone, to believe in |
| 3) There is no hint of the deterioration of Christian | | | | miracles, magic and a host of other so-called |
| relations with Rome during the Neronian persecution of | | | | non-rational things." In light of this, exposure of the |
| the late AD 60's. | | | | double-standard bias in rejecting the New Testament |
| 4) There is no hint of the death of James at the hands | | | | as history can be seen: I.E; It is not history one won't |
| of the Sanhedrin in AD 62 which is recorded by | | | | accept (Plato – with comparatively weak |
| Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews (20.9.1.200). | | | | historiography), it is Christian history that one won't |
| The testimony of John A.T. Robinson – By the | | | | accept (Christ – with extremely strong |
| 1970's, John A.T. Robinson had built a reputation as | | | | historiography). It is not "supernatural" events one |
| being a "liberal" Bible scholar. He was known for his | | | | refuses to accept, it is Christian supernatural events |
| role in what was called the "Death of God" movement. | | | | one refuses to accept. |
| In 1976, he stunned his colleagues with the revolutionary | | | | Sources: |
| book Redating the New Testament in which he | | | | Steven Collins, Championing the Faith |
| carefully examined the available evidence for the | | | | William Lane Craig, from Collins op. cit. |
| dating of each New Testament book. After extensive | | | | Norman Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian |
| detailed research, he concluded that all of the books of | | | | Apologetics |
| the New Testament were written before AD 70 by | | | | John AT Robinson, from Collins op. cit. |
| the traditional authors. Robinson even ended up dating | | | | Dan Story, Defending Your |
| NT books earlier than the dates of his "conservative" | | | | |
| peers. As Geisler states: "Robinson places Matthew at | | | | FF Bruce, from Collins op cit |
| 40 to after 60, Mark at about 45 to 60, Luke at before | | | | Sir William Ramsey, from Collins op cit. |
| 57 to after 60, and John  at from before 40 to after | | | | Gary Habermas, "Why I Believe the New testament is |
| 65. This would mean that one or two Gospels could | | | | Historically Reliable" Â from Geisler/Hoffman eds. "Why |
| have been written as early as seven years after the | | | | I Am A Christian" |
| crucifixion. At the latest, they were all composed within | | | | JP Holding, "Texture Tantrum" online article at |
| the lifetimes of eyewitnesses and contemporaries of | | | | tektonics.org |
| the events. Assuming the basic integrity and | | | | Colin Hemer, from Habermas op cit, from Geisler |
| reasonable accuracy of the writers, this would place | | | | Hoffman eds. Op cit. |
| the reliability of the New Testament documents | | | | Will Durant,from Collins op cit |
| beyond reasonable doubt" (Geisler, ECA) | | | | John Warwick Montgomery, from Collins op cit |
| Paul's writings*: The early date of Paul's writings, and | | | | J.P. Moreland, "Scaling the Secular City" |
| what can be known of Jesus from Paul's writings | | | | Winfried Corduan, "Why I Believe the Bible Alone is the |
| alone (Aside from the obvious facts of the Gospel and | | | | Word of God" from Geisler/Hoffman eds. |
| various teachings) Jesus was born a Jew(Gal. 3:16) | | | | |